Job Enrichment

Organizational Behavior Concept: Job Enrichment Jared Stern Introduction The concept of Job Enrichment is a very broad theory within the field of organizational behavior that is applicable within all sectors of organization. Used synonymously with â€Å"job enlargement†, the term job enrichment refers to different methods that are aimed at increasing employee’s job motivation, satisfaction, self-worth, in an attempt to ultimately increase the overall employee productivity within the organization.Research studies conducted on Job Enrichment and its influence on employee productivity date back to the 1950s and 1960s and throughout those years a wide variety of methods have emerged. Most commonly job enrichment is attributed to the process of job redesign in order to reverse the negative effects monotony of employee tasks, which will include boredom, lack of autonomy and dissatisfaction. Other variances of job enrichment include providing worker incentives by involving the employee in the decision making process, the implementation of quality work groups and team building, and job independence as an incentive to increase productivity.Evolution of the concept of Job Enrichment Beginning in the middle of the 20th century up until present day, the theory of job enrichment has offered many compelling concepts to increase employee productivity while simultaneously enriching the employees work experience, all of which remain applicable today. The early works which established Job enrichment among organizational behavior theorists was Frederick Herzberg’s â€Å"Hygiene Theory† and Hackman and Oldham’s â€Å"Job Characteristic Model†.The Hygiene Theory The central figure in developing the theory of job enrichment within the framework of organizational behavior was Frederick Herzberg who’s pivotal â€Å"Hygiene Theory† has contributed a solid basis and foundation for subsequent generations to expand upon. According to Herzberg, for a worker to be happy and therefore productive the environmental factors of his workplace must not cause him discomfort. Herzberg further asserts that although providing employees with a more comfortable environment may in turn make them more productive, this does not necessarily mean they will be motivated to perform their duties.Simonds & Orife, 1975) Herzberg believed that the process of motivating workers is by enhancing their feeling of responsibility and connection to their work. In this case, Herzberg proclaims that it is the work itself that is rewarding. Managers can help the employees connect to their work by giving them more authority over the job, as well as offering direct and individual feedback. The Job Characteristics Model In 1975 Hackman and Oldham advanced the ideas of Herzberg by introducing what they called â€Å"The Job Characteristics Model†. This model is formulated on the assumption that if five core job characteristics are present, thre e psychological states critical to motivation are produced, resulting in positive outcomes. † (Griffin, Patterson, & West, 2001) The five core job characteristics consist of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Hackman and Oldham state that the three psychological states that motivation is dependent upon are experienced meaningfulness of work, responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of results. Hackman andOldham then proclaim that to the degree that these psychological states are present, high personal employee work motivation will result. Relevance of Job Enrichment in 2007 The early works of Herzberg and Hackman & Oldham have provided a feasible and effective framework for increasing employee productivity through job enrichment that is just as applicable today as it was when their research was first conducted. Within the past half century there have been numerous researches conducted that provides useful empirical evidence to illus trate the rewards and benefits of job enrichment.We will further discuss each method that an organization can implement in an attempt to improve worker productivity through job implementation. Employee autonomy In a study analyzing job independence as an incentive device to increase employee productivity, Kay Mitusch emphasizes that when employee autonomy is present it can compensate for an organization lacking an extrinsic reward program yet still remain productive. â€Å"This is pivotal for explaining why workers in independent, responsible jobs are willing to invest in their jobs even if there is no reliable, formalized system of rewarding them. (Mitusch, 2000) To provide further evidence of the success of employee autonomy as a method of job enrichment Griffin, Patterson, and West explored the relationship between teams and satisfaction using data from a large research project in the U. K. that investigated management practices and employee attitudes in manufacturing companies. The researchers conducted this study by distributing a questionnaire survey which asked them to rank their preferred working conditions in response to hypothetical situations which were designed to relate to their actual work duties.The study showed that â€Å"job enrichment was positively related to job autonomy but was not significantly related to perceptions of supervisory support. † (Griffin, Patterson, and West, 2001) The researchers also concluded that â€Å"while both autonomy and supervisory support were important positive influences on job satisfaction, the positive association of teamwork on job autonomy was explained by job enrichment that accompanied teamwork and could not be attributed to teamwork itself. (Griffin, Patterson, and West, 2001) This data shows that by simply trusting an employee’s expertise at his or her job and allowing them to operate more independently an employee will develop an increased level of job satisfaction and in turn increase t he productive output of that worker. Skill Variety Another technique to enrich an employee’s work experience is to utilize employees with a wide range of skills so they can apply them to their daily work routine.In his article White Collar Job Enrichment: The Pay Board Experience, Tim McNamar explored the Pay Board’s experience with job enrichment. By replacing a traditional method of processing cases with an approach built around work groups performing interrelated tasks, it increased productivity, provided better motivation, and vastly improved opportunities for individual self-actualization and esteem. † (McNamar, 1973) By changing the previous operational procedures and by allowing employees to engage in more of a shared task structure, the Pay Board experienced increased productivity across the spectrum. The decision to adopt a team concept for case management was not due to any of the traditional reasons given for blue collar job enrichment – high ab senteeism, low morale, and the like. Rather, it was instituted in hopes that it would drastically increase productivity. Nevertheless, the approach turned out to provide a variety of benefits, many of which directly related to the question of job enrichment. † (McNamar, 1973) Also, the inclusion of employees in critical decisions that will effect the organization as a whole, shows improvement in the employee’s orale regarding their importance within the organization and in turn increase their motivation.â€Å"In general, research on participative decision making has found that participation improves employees’ attitudes and increases their organizational commitment and job satisfaction. † (DeLancer Julnes, 2001) Job Feedback Another key aspect of job enrichment can be achieved through the simple process of providing employees with useful feedback concerning the work performance along with clearly established expectations. Job enrichment focuses on creating individual tasks that give people feedback, increase their influence how work is done, require them to use a variety of skills, and give them a whole piece of work. † (Mohrman, Lawler, Mohrman, 1992) Task significance and task identity The installation of job enrichment by way of task significance is the extent to which an employee’s work has a meaningful impact on other jobs in the same workplace.This can be accomplished with the installation of teams within the employee work population. Teamwork typically involves groups of interdependent employees who work cooperatively to achieve group outcomes. Effective team implementation can enhance the motivational properties of work and increase job satisfaction. † (Griffin, Patterson, and West, 2001) A direct correlation between task significance and task identity can be seen by the use of teams and specific job duties. The idea of task identity is the measure to which the job requires completion of a number of whole a nd identifiable pieces of work. Theoretically, the choice between teams and individual job enrichment should be made based upon the technology of the workplace. Teams are more complicated to build and to maintain, but may be necessary if the work is such that no one individual can do a whole part of it and get feedback about it. Teams are often appropriate, for example, in process production facilities such as a chemical plants and oil refineries and in complex service organizations such as banks and airlines.Where the technology allows an individual to do a whole task or offer a whole service, individual designs are preferred because they are simpler to install and give the individual more direct feedback. † (Mohrman, Lawler, Mohrman , 1992) The city of Rockville, MD conducted an experiment where managers and line staff collaborated in the decision making process and the result was astonishing, including cost savings, improvement of morale and the appreciation of the need for productivity within the organization increased. The key ingredients in the program’s success was the consultation with supervisors and employees and their involvement in selecting the projects. † (Hobbs, 1976) Counter argument of job enrichment Despite all of the overwhelming evidence of the success that is attributed in implementing job enrichment programs there is a minority of speculators that job enrichment is not always the best option when an organization’s sole objective is to reduce costs. The possible increase in the satisfaction of the employees is probably not a sufficient reason for managers to support job enrichment programs. A survey by Reif and Schoderbek showed that the main objective of top management in companies introducing job enrichment programs was to reduce costs. Hence, management support for a new job design approach has to be gained through a cost-benefit treatment to job design. † (Globerson, 1977) If a company’s sole aim is to reduce costs then investing in your current work force might not be the preferable avenue.However, if an organization or company is interested in fully utilizing its talented workforce and provide increased worker motivation and in turn increase worker productivity, then adopting a job enrichment program is the most effective option. Conclusion Throughout the last few decades, the implementation of a job enrichment program has successfully shown to increase employee’s job motivation, satisfaction, self-worth, in an attempt to ultimately increase the overall employee productivity within the organization.No matter what the function or sector of an organization whether it be a government agency, non-profit organization, or company operating within the private sector, the implementation of job enrichment into your organization will result in the key areas of employee production and worker motivation. It is obvious through years of conducted research that a happy and motivat ed workforce coupled with an effective and flexible management will ultimately result in a highly productive organization.Works Cited Albers Mohrman, Susan, Lawler III, Edward E. , Mohrman, Allan M. 992. â€Å"Applying Employee Involvement in Schools. † Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis DeLancer Julnes, Patria. 2001. â€Å"Does Participation Increase Perceptions of Usefulness? † Public Performance & Management Review Globerson, Shlomo. 1977. â€Å"The Just Noticeable Difference in Complexity of Jobs. † Management Science Griffin, Mark A. , Patterson, Malcolm G. , and West, Michael A. 2001. â€Å"Job Satisfaction and Teamwork: The Role of Supervisor Support† Journal of Organizational Behavior Hobbs, Daniel D. â€Å"Productivity Through Worker Incentive and Satisfaction. Public Productivity Review King, Albert S. 1974. â€Å"Expectation Effects in Organizational Change. † Administrative Science Quarterly McNamar, Tim. 1973. â€Å"White Col lar Job Enrichment: The Pay Board Experience. † Public Administration Review Mitusch, Kay. 2000. â€Å"Job Independence as an Incentive Device. † Economica Simonds, Rollin H. and Orife, John N. 1975. â€Å"Worker Behavior Versus Enrichment Theory. † Administrative Science Quarterly Staudohar, Paul D. 1975. â€Å"An Experiment in Increasing Productivity of Police Service Employees† Public Administration Review Job Enrichment Based on a major study of High Performance Work Practices (HPWPs) in North America by Appelbaum et al. (2000) found that new forms of job design provided production line employees with the opportunity to contribute increased discretionary effort and to participate in workplace problem-solving. These researchers provided empirical evidence that conscious efforts by employers to increase employee discretion and job autonomy resulted in improved job satisfaction for employees and higher levels of organizational performance (Appelbaum et al. 000). Workforce involvement in decision-making may also be consistent with job enrichment practices (Spence Laschinger et al. 2004). Job enrichment involves providing increased levels of responsibility to lower level employees, including the delegation of work tasks previously undertaken by supervisors, and the provision of increasingly skilled tasks to line employees.The theoretical basis for enrichment efforts is Hackman and Oldham's (1975) ‘ job characteristics' model, which explores how a combination of specific job characteristics such as skill variety and task significance affect the individual's experience of meaningful work and their sense of responsibility for work outcomes. These characteristics have, in turn, been linked to improvements in work motivation, job satisfaction and work quality, reduced absenteeism and lower labour turnover (Ford 1969; Hackman et al. 1975).However, job enrichment has received wide publicity but has not always produced favourable results in the workplace. A great deal of debate exists over the benefits and limitations of job enrichment: it clearly is not for everyone. Ralph Brown (2004) summed it up very nicely: Some people are very resistant to more responsibilities or to opportunities for personal growth. Researchers report that some people they expected to resist seized the opportunity. Enriching jobs is a particularly effective way to develop employees provided the jobs are truly enriched, not just more work for them to do.The disadvantages are that job enrichment may lead to greater work pressure and that employees have to start performing tasks which were not originally required of them. Job design: Job design is the specification of the content of a job, the material and equipment required to do the job, and the relation of the job to other jobs. A well-designed job promotes the achievement of the organization’s strategic business objectives by structuring work so it integrates management requirements for efficiency and employee needs for satisfaction.Thus, effective job design presents a major challenge for the HR manager. And job enrichment is one of the methods of job design. Job enrichment is an attempt to motivate employees by giving them the opportunity to use the range of their abilities. It is an idea that was developed by the American psychologist Frederick Hertzberg in the 1950s. It can be contrasted to job enlargement which simply increa ses the number of tasks without changing the challenge. As such job enrichment has been described as ‘vertical loading' increases the complexity of work to promote interest.Thus, job enrichment builds motivating factors into the job content by: combing tasks, establishing client relationships, creating natural work units, expanding jobs vertically and opening feedback channels. Supporter: Patterson, West and Wail (2004) found that firms providing lower level employees with job enrichment and skill enhancement experienced a significant boost in productivity and profitability. A Sri Lankan study of the impact of introducing self managed teams in a large textile mill reported increased productivity, higher product quality, lower reject rates and higher employee satisfaction.The process of delegating increased decision-making responsibility to workplace teams changed the organization’s structures, decision making processes and job design at workplace level, with increased l evels of empowerment and training being provided to team members (Jayawardana and Fonseka 1996). Nevertheless, the potential for improved performance outcomes to follow the provision of increased employee input into workplace decision-making relies on employee acceptance of the relevance of these practices and on the existence of a climate of involvement.One means of creating this climate is to appoint work group leaders who will model the behaviours valued by the organisation, and who are also able to motivate employees to mirror these behaviours (Richards and Vandenberg 2005). In Sri Lanka's Garment Industry, the manager introduced process controllers into the three production lines from January to April 2002; line employees underwent a series of training programs. The training focused on the company's customers and products, the production process and techniques related to increasing quality and problem-solving.The sessions were conducted by the plant manager, the quality assuran ce manager and the work study manager. Each session was followed by a discussion with production line members. The training programs lasted for two hours after work, with all line employees paid for their participation. At production meetings, held once a week, line employees were given feedback on their performance, in particular in relation to line efficiency and end-line rejects. During the initial training, production line employees were given a briefing on market conditions in the industry and customer requirements.They were also provided with an opportunity to study their line's performance for the previous three months in relation to on-time delivery, total rejects and customer returns. The training provided encouraged employees to take responsibility for performance outcomes such as product reject rates and on-standard efficiency levels. The training manager provided feedback to line employees where the performance of one production line lagged that of the organisation as a whole. The training also addressed skill development, the organisation of work and the use of computer-aided information systems and quality control systems.Each machine was equipped with a computer terminal, which gave details of efficiency standards, losses, stoppages and earnings based on incentive payments. The case explored the impact of a job enrichment initiative to devolve increased responsibility for monitoring workplace productivity, product quality and workforce attendance to line employees. We found that the introduction of process controllers generated substantial improvements in LM Collection's performance over this period.Efficiency levels rose from 41 per cent to 61 per cent and product rejects declined from 10 per cent to 2 per cent, while absenteeism levels declined from almost 10 per cent to 2. 4 per cent by March 2003. On the whole, productivity levels improved, product quality increased and workforce absence and turnover episodes declined over the period of this study. Critiques: In the other hand, there are drawbacks of job enrichment when the HR managers do not think about the matters from employees, and no one seems to mention the costs.In some employees eyes, the job enrichment is merely an enforce change to jobs in order for the organisation to obtain higher productivity from its workers. With the pressure of more responsibilities and tasks, the employees may not have enough time to give the feedback of performance. Either actually the workers do not want enriched their jobs or the job is not that easy to enrich. . Job enrichment is a type of job redesign intended to reverse the effects of tasks that are repetitive requiring little autonomy.Some of these effects are boredom, lack of flexibility, and employee dissatisfaction (Leach & Wall, 2004). The underlying principle is to expand the scope of the job with a greater variety of tasks, vertical in nature, that require self-sufficiency. Since the goal is to give the individual exposure to tasks normally reserved for differently focused or higher positions, merely adding more of the same responsibilities related to an employee's current position are not considered job enrichment.Job enrichment can only be truly successful if planning includes support for all phases of the initiative. Ohio State University Extension began a job enrichment program in 1992 and surveyed the participants five years later. The results, broken down into 3 sub-buckets of data beyond the main grouping of advantages/disadvantages as shown in Table 1, indicate the University had not fully considered the planning and administrative aspects of the program (Fourman and Jones, 1997).While the benefits are seemingly obvious, programs fail not because of a lack of benefits, but rather due to implementation problems. These problems can include a perception of too great a cost, lack of long-term commitment of resources, and potential job classification changes (Cunningham and Eberle, 1990). In order for a job enrichment program to produce positive results, worker needs and organizational needs must be analyzed and acted upon. According to Cunningham and Eberle (1990), before an enrichment program is begun, the following questions should be asked: 1.Do employees need jobs that involve responsibility, variety, feedback, challenge, accountability, significance, and opportunities to learn? 2. What techniques can be implemented without changing the job classification plan? 3. What techniques would require changes in the job classification plan? A job enrichment program can be a very effective intervention in some situations where a Performance Technician is faced with a request for motivational training. Conclusion:In my opinion, job enrichment can bring about improvement in both job performance and job satisfaction. A survey of almost 100 research studies found job enrichment resulted in greater productivity, improved product quality, fewer employee grievances, improved worker att itudes; reduce absenteeism and labour turnover, and lower costs. Therefore, improved quality of working life brought about by job enrichment has not only social benefits but also bottom-line benefits to the organization. Job Enrichment Organizational Behavior Concept: Job Enrichment Jared Stern Introduction The concept of Job Enrichment is a very broad theory within the field of organizational behavior that is applicable within all sectors of organization. Used synonymously with â€Å"job enlargement†, the term job enrichment refers to different methods that are aimed at increasing employee’s job motivation, satisfaction, self-worth, in an attempt to ultimately increase the overall employee productivity within the organization.Research studies conducted on Job Enrichment and its influence on employee productivity date back to the 1950s and 1960s and throughout those years a wide variety of methods have emerged. Most commonly job enrichment is attributed to the process of job redesign in order to reverse the negative effects monotony of employee tasks, which will include boredom, lack of autonomy and dissatisfaction. Other variances of job enrichment include providing worker incentives by involving the employee in the decision making process, the implementation of quality work groups and team building, and job independence as an incentive to increase productivity.Evolution of the concept of Job Enrichment Beginning in the middle of the 20th century up until present day, the theory of job enrichment has offered many compelling concepts to increase employee productivity while simultaneously enriching the employees work experience, all of which remain applicable today. The early works which established Job enrichment among organizational behavior theorists was Frederick Herzberg’s â€Å"Hygiene Theory† and Hackman and Oldham’s â€Å"Job Characteristic Model†.The Hygiene Theory The central figure in developing the theory of job enrichment within the framework of organizational behavior was Frederick Herzberg who’s pivotal â€Å"Hygiene Theory† has contributed a solid basis and foundation for subsequent generations to expand upon. According to Herzberg, for a worker to be happy and therefore productive the environmental factors of his workplace must not cause him discomfort. Herzberg further asserts that although providing employees with a more comfortable environment may in turn make them more productive, this does not necessarily mean they will be motivated to perform their duties.Simonds & Orife, 1975) Herzberg believed that the process of motivating workers is by enhancing their feeling of responsibility and connection to their work. In this case, Herzberg proclaims that it is the work itself that is rewarding. Managers can help the employees connect to their work by giving them more authority over the job, as well as offering direct and individual feedback. The Job Characteristics Model In 1975 Hackman and Oldham advanced the ideas of Herzberg by introducing what they called â€Å"The Job Characteristics Model†. This model is formulated on the assumption that if five core job characteristics are present, thre e psychological states critical to motivation are produced, resulting in positive outcomes. † (Griffin, Patterson, & West, 2001) The five core job characteristics consist of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Hackman and Oldham state that the three psychological states that motivation is dependent upon are experienced meaningfulness of work, responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of results. Hackman andOldham then proclaim that to the degree that these psychological states are present, high personal employee work motivation will result. Relevance of Job Enrichment in 2007 The early works of Herzberg and Hackman & Oldham have provided a feasible and effective framework for increasing employee productivity through job enrichment that is just as applicable today as it was when their research was first conducted. Within the past half century there have been numerous researches conducted that provides useful empirical evidence to illus trate the rewards and benefits of job enrichment.We will further discuss each method that an organization can implement in an attempt to improve worker productivity through job implementation. Employee autonomy In a study analyzing job independence as an incentive device to increase employee productivity, Kay Mitusch emphasizes that when employee autonomy is present it can compensate for an organization lacking an extrinsic reward program yet still remain productive. â€Å"This is pivotal for explaining why workers in independent, responsible jobs are willing to invest in their jobs even if there is no reliable, formalized system of rewarding them. (Mitusch, 2000) To provide further evidence of the success of employee autonomy as a method of job enrichment Griffin, Patterson, and West explored the relationship between teams and satisfaction using data from a large research project in the U. K. that investigated management practices and employee attitudes in manufacturing companies. The researchers conducted this study by distributing a questionnaire survey which asked them to rank their preferred working conditions in response to hypothetical situations which were designed to relate to their actual work duties.The study showed that â€Å"job enrichment was positively related to job autonomy but was not significantly related to perceptions of supervisory support. † (Griffin, Patterson, and West, 2001) The researchers also concluded that â€Å"while both autonomy and supervisory support were important positive influences on job satisfaction, the positive association of teamwork on job autonomy was explained by job enrichment that accompanied teamwork and could not be attributed to teamwork itself. (Griffin, Patterson, and West, 2001) This data shows that by simply trusting an employee’s expertise at his or her job and allowing them to operate more independently an employee will develop an increased level of job satisfaction and in turn increase t he productive output of that worker. Skill Variety Another technique to enrich an employee’s work experience is to utilize employees with a wide range of skills so they can apply them to their daily work routine.In his article White Collar Job Enrichment: The Pay Board Experience, Tim McNamar explored the Pay Board’s experience with job enrichment. By replacing a traditional method of processing cases with an approach built around work groups performing interrelated tasks, it increased productivity, provided better motivation, and vastly improved opportunities for individual self-actualization and esteem. † (McNamar, 1973) By changing the previous operational procedures and by allowing employees to engage in more of a shared task structure, the Pay Board experienced increased productivity across the spectrum. The decision to adopt a team concept for case management was not due to any of the traditional reasons given for blue collar job enrichment – high ab senteeism, low morale, and the like. Rather, it was instituted in hopes that it would drastically increase productivity. Nevertheless, the approach turned out to provide a variety of benefits, many of which directly related to the question of job enrichment. † (McNamar, 1973) Also, the inclusion of employees in critical decisions that will effect the organization as a whole, shows improvement in the employee’s orale regarding their importance within the organization and in turn increase their motivation.â€Å"In general, research on participative decision making has found that participation improves employees’ attitudes and increases their organizational commitment and job satisfaction. † (DeLancer Julnes, 2001) Job Feedback Another key aspect of job enrichment can be achieved through the simple process of providing employees with useful feedback concerning the work performance along with clearly established expectations. Job enrichment focuses on creating individual tasks that give people feedback, increase their influence how work is done, require them to use a variety of skills, and give them a whole piece of work. † (Mohrman, Lawler, Mohrman, 1992) Task significance and task identity The installation of job enrichment by way of task significance is the extent to which an employee’s work has a meaningful impact on other jobs in the same workplace.This can be accomplished with the installation of teams within the employee work population. Teamwork typically involves groups of interdependent employees who work cooperatively to achieve group outcomes. Effective team implementation can enhance the motivational properties of work and increase job satisfaction. † (Griffin, Patterson, and West, 2001) A direct correlation between task significance and task identity can be seen by the use of teams and specific job duties. The idea of task identity is the measure to which the job requires completion of a number of whole a nd identifiable pieces of work. Theoretically, the choice between teams and individual job enrichment should be made based upon the technology of the workplace. Teams are more complicated to build and to maintain, but may be necessary if the work is such that no one individual can do a whole part of it and get feedback about it. Teams are often appropriate, for example, in process production facilities such as a chemical plants and oil refineries and in complex service organizations such as banks and airlines.Where the technology allows an individual to do a whole task or offer a whole service, individual designs are preferred because they are simpler to install and give the individual more direct feedback. † (Mohrman, Lawler, Mohrman , 1992) The city of Rockville, MD conducted an experiment where managers and line staff collaborated in the decision making process and the result was astonishing, including cost savings, improvement of morale and the appreciation of the need for productivity within the organization increased. The key ingredients in the program’s success was the consultation with supervisors and employees and their involvement in selecting the projects. † (Hobbs, 1976) Counter argument of job enrichment Despite all of the overwhelming evidence of the success that is attributed in implementing job enrichment programs there is a minority of speculators that job enrichment is not always the best option when an organization’s sole objective is to reduce costs. The possible increase in the satisfaction of the employees is probably not a sufficient reason for managers to support job enrichment programs. A survey by Reif and Schoderbek showed that the main objective of top management in companies introducing job enrichment programs was to reduce costs. Hence, management support for a new job design approach has to be gained through a cost-benefit treatment to job design. † (Globerson, 1977) If a company’s sole aim is to reduce costs then investing in your current work force might not be the preferable avenue.However, if an organization or company is interested in fully utilizing its talented workforce and provide increased worker motivation and in turn increase worker productivity, then adopting a job enrichment program is the most effective option. Conclusion Throughout the last few decades, the implementation of a job enrichment program has successfully shown to increase employee’s job motivation, satisfaction, self-worth, in an attempt to ultimately increase the overall employee productivity within the organization.No matter what the function or sector of an organization whether it be a government agency, non-profit organization, or company operating within the private sector, the implementation of job enrichment into your organization will result in the key areas of employee production and worker motivation. It is obvious through years of conducted research that a happy and motivat ed workforce coupled with an effective and flexible management will ultimately result in a highly productive organization.Works Cited Albers Mohrman, Susan, Lawler III, Edward E. , Mohrman, Allan M. 992. â€Å"Applying Employee Involvement in Schools. † Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis DeLancer Julnes, Patria. 2001. â€Å"Does Participation Increase Perceptions of Usefulness? † Public Performance & Management Review Globerson, Shlomo. 1977. â€Å"The Just Noticeable Difference in Complexity of Jobs. † Management Science Griffin, Mark A. , Patterson, Malcolm G. , and West, Michael A. 2001. â€Å"Job Satisfaction and Teamwork: The Role of Supervisor Support† Journal of Organizational Behavior Hobbs, Daniel D. â€Å"Productivity Through Worker Incentive and Satisfaction. Public Productivity Review King, Albert S. 1974. â€Å"Expectation Effects in Organizational Change. † Administrative Science Quarterly McNamar, Tim. 1973. â€Å"White Col lar Job Enrichment: The Pay Board Experience. † Public Administration Review Mitusch, Kay. 2000. â€Å"Job Independence as an Incentive Device. † Economica Simonds, Rollin H. and Orife, John N. 1975. â€Å"Worker Behavior Versus Enrichment Theory. † Administrative Science Quarterly Staudohar, Paul D. 1975. â€Å"An Experiment in Increasing Productivity of Police Service Employees† Public Administration Review

Life and Work of John Bowlby

Bowlby was born in London to an upper-middle-class family. He was the fourth of six children and was brought up by a nanny in the British fashion of his class at that time. His father, Sir Anthony Bowlby, first Baronet, was surgeon to the King's Household, with a tragic history: at age five, Sir Anthony's own father (John's grandfather) was killed while serving as a war correspondent in the Opium Wars. Normally, Bowlby saw his mother only one hour a day after teatime, though during the summer she was more available. Like many other mothers of her social class, she considered that parental attention and affection would lead to dangerous spoiling of the children. Bowlby was lucky in that the nanny in his family was present throughout his childhood. [1] When Bowlby was almost four years old, his beloved nanny, who was actually his primary caretaker in his early years, left the family. Later, he was to describe this as tragic as the loss of a mother. At the age of seven, he was sent off to boarding school, as was common for boys of his social status. In his work Separation: Anxiety and Anger, he revealed that he regarded it as a terrible time for him. He later said, â€Å"I wouldn't send a dog away to boarding school at age seven†. [2] Because of such experiences as a child, he displayed a sensitivity to children’s suffering throughout his life. However, with his characteristic attentiveness to the effects of age differences, Bowlby did consider boarding schools appropriate for children aged eight and older, and wrote, â€Å"If the child is maladjusted, it may be useful for him to be away for part of the year from the tensions which produced his difficulties, and if the home is bad in other ways the same is true. The boarding school has the advantage of preserving the child's all-important home ties, even if in slightly attenuated form, and, since it forms part of the ordinary social pattern of most Western communities today [1951], the child who goes to boarding-school will not feel different from other children. Moreover, by relieving the parents of the children for part of the year, it will be possible for some of them to develop more favorable attitudes toward their children during the remainder. [3] He married Ursula Longstaff, herself the daughter of a surgeon, on April 16, 1938, and they had four children, including (Sir) Richard Bowlby, who succeeded his uncle as third Baronet. Bowlby died at his summer home on the Isle of Skye, Scotland. Career Bowlby studied psychology and pre-clinical sciences at Trinity College, Cambridge, winning prizes for outstanding intellectual performance. After Cambridge, he worked with maladjusted and delinquent children, then at the age of twenty-two enrolled at University College Hospital in London. At the age of twenty-six, he qualified in medicine. While still in medical school he enrolled himself in the Institute for Psychoanalysis. Following medical school, he trained in adult psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital. In 1937, aged 30, he qualified as a psychoanalyst. During World War II, he was a Lieutenant Colonel in the Royal Army Medical Corps. After the war, he was Deputy Director of the Tavistock Clinic, and from 1950, Mental Health Consultant to the World Health Organization. Because of his previous work with maladapted and delinquent children, he became interested in the development of children and began work at the Child Guidance Clinic in London. This interest was probably increased by a variety of wartime events involving separation of young children from familiar people; these included the rescue of Jewish children by the Kindertransport arrangements, the evacuation of children from London to keep them safe from air raids, and the use of group nurseries to allow mothers of young children to contribute to the war effort. [4] Bowlby was interested from the beginning of his career in the problem of separation and the wartime work of Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham on evacuees and Rene Spitz on orphans. By the late 1950s he had accumulated a body of observational and theoretical work to indicate the fundamental importance for human development of attachment from birth. [2] Bowlby was interested in finding out the actual patterns of family interaction involved in both healthy and pathological development. He focused on how attachment difficulties were transmitted from one generation to the next. In his development of attachment theory he propounded the idea that attachment behaviour was essentially an evolutionary survival strategy for protecting the infant from predators. Mary Ainsworth, a student of Bowlby’s, further extended and tested his ideas, and in fact played the primary role in suggesting that several attachment styles existed. The three most important experiences for Bowlby’s future work and the development of attachment theory were his work with: Maladapted and delinquent children. James Robertson (in 1952) in making the documentary film A Two-Year Old Goes to the Hospital, which was one of the films about †young children in brief separationâ€Å". The documentary illustrated the impact of loss and suffering experienced by young children separated from their primary caretakers. This film was instrumental in a campaign to alter hospital restrictions on visiting by parents. In 1952 when he and Robertson presented their film A Two Year Old Goes to Hospital to the British Psychoanalytical Society, psychoanalysts did not accept that a child would mourn or experience grief on separation but instead saw the child's distress as caused by elements of unconscious fantasies (in the film because the mother was pregnant). Melanie Klein during his psychoanalytic training. She was his supervisor; however they had different views about the role of the mother in the treatment of a three-year-old boy. Specifically and importantly, Klein stressed the role of the child's fantasies about his mother, but Bowlby emphasized the actual history of the relationship. Bowlby's views—that children were responding to real life events and not unconscious fantasies—were rejected by psychoanalysts, and Bowlby was effectively ostracized by the psychoanalytic community. He later expressed the view that his interest in real-life experiences and situations was â€Å"alien to the Kleinian outlook†. [2] Maternal deprivation Main article: Maternal deprivation In 1949, Bowlby's earlier work on delinquent and affectionless children and the effects of hospitalised and institutionalised care lead to his being commissioned to write the World Health Organization's report on the mental health of homeless children in post-war Europe. [5] The result was Maternal Care and Mental Health published in 1951. [6] Bowlby drew together such limited empirical evidence as existed at the time from across Europe and the USA. His main conclusions, that â€Å"the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment† and that not to do so may have significant and irreversible mental health consequences, were both controversial and influential. The 1951 WHO publication was highly influential in causing widespread changes in the practices and prevalence of institutional care for infants and children, and in changing practices relating to the visiting of infants and small children n hospitals by parents. The theoretical basis was controversial in many ways. He broke with psychoanalytic theories which saw infants' internal life as being determined by fantasy rather than real life events. Some critics profoundly disagreed with the necessity for maternal (or equivalent) love in order to function normally,[7] or that the formation of an ongoing relationship with a child was an important part of parenting. [8] Others questioned the extent to which his hypothesis was supported by the evidence. There was criticism of the confusion of the effects of privation (no primary attachment figure) and deprivation (loss of the primary attachment figure) and in particular, a failure to distinguish between the effects of the lack of a primary attachment figure and the other forms of deprivation and understimulation that may affect children in institutions. [9] The monograph was also used for political purposes to claim any separation from the mother was deleterious in order to discourage women from working and leaving their children in daycare by governments concerned about maximising employment for returned and returning servicemen. 9] In 1962 WHO published Deprivation of maternal care: A Reassessment of its Effects to which Mary Ainsworth, Bowlby's close colleague, contributed with his approval, to present the recent research and developments and to address misapprehensions. [10] This publication also attempted to address the previous lack of evidence on the effects of paternal deprivation. According to Rutter the importance of Bowlby's initial writings on ‘maternal deprivation' lay in his emphasis that children's experiences of interpersonal relationships were crucial to their psychological development. 8] Development of attachment theory Bowlby himself explained in his 1988 work â€Å"A Secure Base† that the data were not, at the time of the publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health, â€Å"accommodated by any theory then current and in the brief time of my employment by the World Health Organization there was no possibility of developing a new one†. He then went on to describe the subsequent development of attachment theory. 11] Because he was dissatisfied with traditional theories, Bowlby sought new understanding from such fields as evolutionary biology, ethology, developmental psychology, cognitive science and control systems theory and drew upon them to formulate the innovative proposition that the mechanisms underlying an infants tie emerged as a result of evolutionary pressure. [12] â€Å"Bowlby realised that he had to develop a new theory of motivation and behaviour control, built on up-to-date science rather than the outdated psychic energy model espoused by Freud. [5] Bowlby expressed himself as having made good the â€Å"deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect† in Maternal Care and Mental Health in his later work Attachment and Loss published in 1969. [13] Ethology and evolutionary concepts â€Å"From the 1950s Bowlby was in personal and scientific contact with leading European scientists in the field of ethology, namely Niko Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and especially the rising star of ethology Robert Hinde. Using the viewpoints of this emerging science and reading extensively in the ethology literature, Bowlby developed new explanatory hypotheses for what is now known as human attachment behaviour. In particular, on the basis of ethological evidence he was able to reject the dominant Cupboard Love theory of attachment prevailing in psychoanalysis and learning theory of the 1940s and 1950s. He also introduced the concepts of environmentally stable or labile human behaviour allowing for the revolutionary combination of the idea of a species-specific genetic bias to become attached and the concept of individual differences in attachment security as environmentally labile strategies for adaptation to a specific childrearing niche. Alternately, Bowlby’s thinking about the nature and function of the caregiver-child relationship influenced ethological research, and inspired students of animal behaviour such as Tinbergen, Hinde, and Harry Harlow. Bowlby spurred Hinde to start his ground breaking work on attachment and separation in primates (monkeys and humans), and in general emphasized the importance of evolutionary thinking about human development that foreshadowed the new interdisciplinary approach of evolutionary psychology. Obviously, the encounter of ethology and attachment theory led to a genuine cross-fertilization† (Van der Horst, Van der Veer & Van IJzendoorn, 2007, p. 321). [14][15] The â€Å"Attachment and Loss† trilogy Main articles: Attachment theory and Attachment in children Before the publication of the trilogy in 1969, 1972 and 1980, the main tenets of attachment theory, building on concepts from ethology and developmental psychology, were presented to the British Psychoanalytical Society in London in three now classic papers: The Nature of the Child’s Tie to His Mother (1958), Separation Anxiety (1959), and Grief and Mourning in Infancy and Early Childhood (1960). Bowlby rejected psychoanalyst explanations for attachment, and in return, psychoanalysts rejected his theory. At about the same time, Bowlby's former colleague, Mary Ainsworth was completing extensive observational studies on the nature of infant attachments in Uganda with Bowlby's ethological theories in mind. Her results in this and other studies contributed greatly to the subsequent evidence base of attachment theory as presented in 1969 in Attachment the first volume of the Attachment and Loss trilogy. [16] The second and third volumes, Separation: Anxiety and Anger and Loss: Sadness and Depression followed in 1972 and 1980 respectively. Attachment was revised in 1982 to incorporate recent research. According to attachment theory, attachment in infants is primarily a process of proximity seeking to an identified attachment figure in situations of perceived distress or alarm for the purpose of survival. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about 6 months to two years of age. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment which in turn lead to ‘internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships. [5] In Bowlby's approach, the human infant is considered to have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers, without which normal social and emotional development will not occur. As the toddler grows, it uses its attachment figure or figures as a â€Å"secure base† from which to explore. Mary Ainsworth used this feature plus â€Å"stranger wariness† and reunion behaviours, other features of attachment behaviour, to develop a research tool called the â€Å"Strange Situation Procedure† for developing and classifying different attachment styles. The attachment process is not gender specific as infants will form attachments to any consistent caregiver who is sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant. The quality of the social engagement appears to be more influential than amount of time spent. 16] Darwin biography Bowlby's last work, published posthumously, is a biography of Charles Darwin, which discusses Darwin's â€Å"mysterious illness† and whether it was psychosomatic. [17] Bowlby's legacy Main article: Attachment theory Although not without its critics, attachment theory has been described as the dominant approach to understanding early social development and to have given rise to a great surge of empirical research into the formation of children's close relationships. 18] As it is presently formulated and used for research purposes, Bowlby's attachment theory stresses the following important tenets:[19] 1) Children between 6 and about 30 months are very likely to form emotional attachments to familiar caregivers, especially if the adults are sensitive and responsive to child communications. 2) The emotional attachments of young children are shown behaviourally in their preferences for particular familiar people, their tendency to seek proximity to those people, especially in times of distress, and their ability to use the familiar adults as a secure base from which to explore the environment. ) The formation of emotional attachments contributes to the foundation of later emotional and personality development, and the type of behaviour toward familiar adults shown by toddlers has some continuity with the social behaviours they will show later in life. 4) Events that interfere with attachment, such as abrupt separation of the toddler from familiar people or the significant inability of carers to be sensitive, responsive or consistent in their interactions, have short-term and possible long-term negative impacts on the child's emotional and cognitive life.

In the documents which I upload Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

In the documents which I upload - Essay Example The power of the sound depends on the ability to create a known rhythm, harmony and style. The development of the music usage in documentaries, drama and other films has helped in the development of the quality movie following and in turn facilitate the development of the attraction and attention grasping of the audience. The Music that can be used in the film Golden age is a documentary sound effect because it does not have any physical character but relies on sound in character and plot development. The movies has an abstract presentation of images that cannot be clearly understood without linking the film to technological work such as the use of sound and effects will facilitate the development of theme and storyline which can be developed and be used to explain the occurrences and use of technology in films. The film presents the different approaches that can be used to address the issues of image creation. Music and sound use in the film Sound usage in the film is vital because it creates the necessary accompanying audio effect that influences the performance of the movies. Movies without the sound effect and music cannot be able to produce effects on the audience. Music is a vital aspect in the film production cycle, which leads to the development of attention in the audience. The absence of music has a profound effect on the film because music is used to enhance the drama. Without music and sound, it is impossible to illustrate the emotional content in the film (Larsen, 2008, p. 34). The development of the story line is not effective in the process leading to the development of misunderstanding of concepts. The employment of the Automated Dialog replacement is to improve the quality of the actor’s voices and reduce the effect of the surrounding noises or solve the problems of volume and quality. Music offers the guidance of emotions in the play through the development of the various means and styles of sound controls. The development of the variou s approaches with the main focus being on the use of sound is depicted in several movies. These movies present ideas and emotion by the use of dialogue, monologue and music usage. Music in films helps in improving imagery and intimates the drawings (Sherman, 2003, p. 78). The success of the music usage is dependent on choice and sound effects associated with the situation. Situation of horror and happiness is presented differently with the main focus of the sound effect being on volume and intensity. Despite the impact of sound and music use in the film, the influence may not be powerful, when it is not linked to the scene. The failure to develop the various mechanisms of sound and music control in the movie may lead to lack of relevance in the movies. The chosen movie does not have a sound tract as such it does not draw attention of the audience. Thus, the impact of sound usage can be easily evaluated by evaluating the film. The use of music and the sound tract improves the film qu ality by improving the understanding of the audience and increased attention to the plot development of the film (Wierzbicki, 2008, p. 63). The film has failed to include sound tracks for the purpose of evaluating the impact of sound in film creation and watching. Simulation coupled with sound usage makes the film successful if properly controlled. Soundtrack for the Film From the start of the film, to the 23rd second is the introduction part of the movie, which must be touching and captivating. The use of stringed instruments accompanied by

Trade Diversion and Trade Creation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Trade Diversion and Trade Creation - Essay Example The concept of trade creation and the trade diversion is based on the cost of production and the value of the outcomes among countries or regions. Trade creation arises because of trade deals that occur between different countries that are involved in a spending shift by the domestic consumers. The agreement aims at moving local consumer expenditure from higher cost source domestic spending to a lower cost source partner spending (El-Agraa and El-Agraa, 2007). To clarify the concept of trade diversion, take an example of two countries within the EU that have signed a trading agreement. Taking in country A and country B. Country A households can switch their spending on insurance and cars supplied by its domestic suppliers at a higher cost to those provided by country B suppliers at a lower cost operating in the same market. The primary essence of trade creation is to encourage an upsurge in trade among countries that enter an agreement by signing the trade accord (Laine, 2011). The trade creation also leads to an efficient allocation of limited resources and raises gain in user and manufacturer welfare. Below is a diagram showing both the domestic supply and the internal demand for trade creation in the European Countries. The diagram demonstrates that access to cheaper supplies allows a lower price, which benefits the final consumer. The diagram also shows that a reduction in price that leads to an expansion in demand thus an increase in consumer surplus. The incurred surplus further leads to a net improvement in the country’s economic welfare. On the other hand, trade diversion is best defined as a change in local customer speeding from a zone of lower cost source to an area of higher partner cost source. It occurs because of the removal of tariffs on the imports acquired from the other partner countries. Trade diversion is commonly based on the existing tariffs on the external imports of the goods and services.

Integration is not easy to achieve but when it is achieved, the 4 Es Essay

Integration is not easy to achieve but when it is achieved, the 4 Es and 4 Cs of IMC create the synergistic benefits of integration - Essay Example However, with lots of choices including the media’s bombardment of potential customers with the right messages, this is having no effect to the potential (Figen, 2006). An effective Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) which will unify multi-channels, synchronize communication and group together the three aspects of communications; advertisement, public relations and marketing towards relating intimately with the customers, is the only solution viable for firms to reap the benefits of marketing. This is made possible by the use of both online and offline marketing channel with complementary media to ensure consistency in the delivery of message. Sometimes even with an effective Integrated Marketing Communications program, firms need have a competitive advantage over other similar firms in the industry and should therefore include the 4E’s and the 4C’s on Integrated Marketing communications to create the synergistic benefits of integration. Broderick and Pickton (2005 28) rightfully state that â€Å"Integration is not easy to achieve but when it is achieved, the 4 E’s and 4 C’s of IMC create the synergistic benefits of integration† in this respect. The following suggestions will discuss the integration of the 4C’s and the 4E’s within IMC. The 4C’s of communication propose that integrated marketing communications should have consistency, coherence, continuity and be complementary while the 4E’s propose integrated marketing communications should be economical, efficient, enhancing and effective (Figen 34). Being economical involves using minimum resources, time and strategies necessary for effective consideration and most importantly, being cautious with money to avoid overspending. To ensure profitability for any firm, Integrated Marketing Communication should be economical. Costs incurred in running integrated marketing communication should not exceed or level with the expected returns. To

Influence of the Western Roman Empire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Influence of the Western Roman Empire - Essay Example Initially, Rome was a single city but later expanded to a great empire that controlled the Mediterranean coastal region. Roman period had two entities, the Republican Period and the Empire; each lasted for half a millennium. The empire was divided into Principate that lasted from 27 BCE to 180 CE and autocracy from 284 to 395CE (Damerow Web). The Roman Empire began with Augustus. Emperors were the ruler of the empire. Christianity rose during the autocracy period and replaced paganism. In addition, monotheistic belief replaced polytheist cult system. The rise of the medieval period was because of Roman influence. Furthermore, the foundation of Roman Civilization was on Roman values and existed even before the rise of Christianity. Romans people were successful in various fields such as art, government, military organization, and public. They borrowed ideas from Greeks and Hellenistic world. This paper seeks to focus on the influence of the Western Roman Empire within the period from 200 BCE to 476 C. Many aspects of society that exist today have been influenced by ancient Rome. They range from law, democratic government practices, influence in language, literature, art, infrastructure, and city planning. The Western Roman Empire had a tremendous influence in law, religion, architecture, and culture. This was largely important within the period from 200 BCE to 476 CE. This influence was usually perpetuated during the Romans territorial expansion. This influence especially was based on areas it controlled the western Mediterranean. They also established legal code that formed part of western legal code. Moreover, their institutions, technology, and infrastructure continue to influence their successors in this region. The legacy of Western Roman Empire influence on culture was great. The significance of this transformation cannot be ignored as it ushered in the medieval period of history. There was a complete change of culture from the way people married, raised t heir children, and died. Actually, it resulted in a trans-valuation of all values. The most important aspect of culture was the transmission off Greek (Hellenistic) culture to the west. The Roman's were at their peak of cultural influence between 200 BCE and 200 CE. Romans were known of copying cultures and adopting them as their own. They adopted Latin as their language and were majorly used in the western world during this period. As a result, Latin became the official language of the Western Roman Empire. Latin formed the basis for Romance language after Germanic invasions in 4th and 5th centuries. The Romance Languages composed of Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. At the time of decline of Western Roman Empire, the Catholic Church (monks) continued to preserve and transmit Greek texts and ideas. Latin also remained the language for the Roman Catholic Church and the second half of 20th century. Moreover, this language developed between 200 BCE to 476 CE continued to be us ed by the educated later in the centuries such as educated people. At this period, several other language adopted Latin words. Most of the medical, legal, philosophical, and scientific terms are based on Latin language. Additionally, Roman law dominated western side. This was based on the twelve tablets through the Corpus Juris Civils and was famous in 200 BCE to 476 CE. The Roman Catholic

Baby Theresa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Baby Theresa - Essay Example From this discussion it is clear that  approach which regards the possibility of taking one life to save another undermines the value of human life as whole. Here arises the problem of deciding who can be considered alive and who is not. Immediately, one can question the relevance of existence of people in coma and regard them as inferior and less important than conscious people. Similarly, could it touch severely retarded children, who are not capable of making decisions or leading a conscious and reasonable dialogue? The main issue here is that no one should have a right to making evaluations of whose life is more important and who is merely a means and to take a responsibility of talking about the common good and beneficence.As the essay discusses  allowing to donate organs of a child with anencephaly can serve as a precedent and further lead to widening of the law. The following can, eventually, result in a permission to transplant organs without patient’s consent in v arious contexts. For instance, it would give more freedom for medical workers to decide whom to consider eligible for donation. It could happen that soon people in coma or severely ill patients would be used as donors of organs without their permission or will be forced to give such permission. Any human can be exploited and used as a merely an object.  Solution of current bioethical dilemmas is quite a challenging task that presupposes a reconsideration of moral principles, personal values, and legal aspects.  

Response Paper to McCloskey's article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Response Paper to McCloskey's article - Essay Example He goes ahead to suggest that due to lack of proof the notion of Gods existence should be dismissed altogether. Moreover, looking keenly at the arguments he puts across it lacks substance, one of those is existence of evil, which he says it is a proof God does not exist. This kind of argument lacks merit because one can say that if presence of evil things is a proof of Gods non-existence, what about the existence of the good and what it proofs. The article has not answered this query. McCloskey believes that the cosmological argument was an argument from the existence of the world. McCloskey also states that believing in an uncaused first origin of the universe is issues because nothing about our universe leads us to that believe. However, many of us may disagree with this because we believe that God is the fundamental factor of the origin of the universe. Furthermore, scholars and philosophers term that the universe is contingent; therefore, the universe requires a necessary being t o acts as an ultimate cause. Finally, this necessary being is God.His article represents his own thinking and that of atheism but does not proof anything. In his article, he puts emphasis on the point that evident proofs of nature cannot adequately elucidate the existence of God. ... He seems to be comfortable with naturalistic ideas. McCloskey points out these objections against the cosmological argument stating that the fact that the world is real is enough evidence not to believe in such a higher being as God, but Evans and Manis puts forward the following argument in response. They say that for a contingent being to exist then there must be a necessary being that causes the contingent being to exist contingent beings exist, therefore if we are the contingent beings then God must be the Necessary being. The only fault in this response is that they do not have evidence to proof their argument (Evans and Manis, 2009).. They response to the issues raised by Mccloskey to their arguments by pointing out that atheist assertion that the universe has always survived. Manis and Evans counter by stating their approach is enough for such a challenge since they do not make any suggestion as to the age of the universe. The other issue raised by Mccloskey is that if everyth ing has a cause, then God must have a cause as well but Manis and Evans counters this by saying that God is not a contingent being, therefore His origin cannot be known and it is unnecessary to know and that is why He is God. The main challenge to this is naturalism, this is because naturalists hold a notion that things exists at natures will and have no cause but on the same breath they cannot explain why beings exist. McCloskey points out that cosmological argument by saying that he does not sanction us to assume an all-mighty, all-perfect, all-powerful uncaused being which causes other beings. Evans and Manis accepts that this is debatable, They further note that even if the argument is held as

Time management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Time management - Essay Example She suggests that they can work at the ‘natural pace’ of their class by paying attention to student reactions. By observing whether the students appear bored (the lesson pace needs to be accelerated), or whether students appear agitated or frustrated (the lesson pace needs to be decelerated), the teacher can tailor their style to their students. For example, they could repeat information more or less often, or break material down into smaller sections. On a basic level, there are a number of easy ways in which a teacher can break up the pace of a lesson, to prevent learning becoming monotonous, which apply to both ELL and non-ELL students. As Regan (2003), proposed, they could have brief brainstorming sessions, put a time limit on some activities, or introduce some kind of competition, such as rewarding the first group to finish a set activity. Timing specific activities can certainly be effective, using tools such as quick fire tests on the material just covered. For this reason, Smith (2007) also suggests that each classroom should have a clock which is easily visible to all students. Setting tasks which involve a student preparing something which they will then share with the class as a whole is also an effective method – they will feel a greater compulsion to complete the task in time if it is being shared collectively. Such activities can play a useful role in keeping up the pace of the lesson. Davison (2007) also proposed several measures which can be taken by a teacher to ensure that they are providing an optimum lesson pace for their students, whether ELL or non-ELL. Many of her suggestions involve variety – it is important that the lesson should not follow a regular and predictable pattern, so that the students do not become bored and disengage from the lesson. Therefore, giving a short break in the class can allow students to reflect on the

Relationship between Mind and Body Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Relationship between Mind and Body - Essay Example Similarly, the paper discusses whether one is more significant than the other is in a human life. Descartes talks about a possible existence of material outside God and the Self. Accordingly, the author holds that the existence of such objects is only possible because God creates them. Therefore, the author postulates that the materials exist because they relate to pure mathematics. It because Descartes believes that God makes what he thinks in the way it is. Similarly, nothing is impossible for God to create unless someone does not understand a thing (Descartes, Meditation VI: about the existence of Material things from the Body). Consequently, after discovering the possibility of the existence of the objects, the author then turns to the presence of mental pictures as evidence. Therefore, he distinguishes perception and imagination. Accordingly, he asserts that creativity refers to the capacity of knowledge to the body that is immediately present to it, without conception or intellection (Descartes, Meditations, 6), which prevails as a mental image. Understanding is not automatically a picture. He applies an example, that when he has a mental image of a triangle, he does not just perceive it to be a figure with three lines; he says he looks at the lines as if they were present to the mental eye. Therefore, that is what Descartes calls a mental picture. Descartes gives priority to the mind than the body. It is because the mind controls the body. In other words, the body only responds to whatever the mind perceives, conceives, and accepts as reality.  

Physical Exercise and GPA Essay Example for Free

Physical Exercise and GPA Essay Physical education connotes many different things to people. To some it is a subject area which focuses on physical training. Conventionally, this has meant promoting activities which lead to anatomical and physiological development (Sansone, 2000). The notion of PT and calls to improve the physical condition of our nations youth in order to provide a strong base for the military have also been consistent with this idea (Ennis, 2001). Others have had a more expansive view of physical education and portrayed the area as education through the physical, rather than of the physical (Pringle, 2000). Such a notion suggests that involvement in a variety of sports and games provides participants not only with opportunities to develop physical prowess, but to learn important social values while developing desirable personal traits. A third major thrust that has affected the meaning attributed to the concept is associated with its recreational function (Ruth, 2006). The basis of this theme is that people perform optimally when they have periodic diversions from their normal work world, and that involvement in physical activity can provide necessary relief and renewal. Closely affiliated with this idea is that physical recreation provides a wholesome and constructive use of ones free time (Lee2002). Despite such grandiose themes, Duda (2001) has argued that within the larger context of higher education classes focusing on the acquisition of skilled movements and play are viewed as nonintellectual, nonacademic, nonessential, and nonartistic (p. 433). As a result of such perceptions he believes that physical education is relegated to a peripheral role in the academy, and its practitioners pay a price for its marginal status in their daily lives. Furthermore, Duda suggests that a large part of physical education failing to gain acceptance in higher education is a consequence of the static criteria used to assess academic value in general. According to his analysis value of a curricular offering is typically based on such things as the intellectual challenge of material, the extent to which subject matter is categorized as academic rather than motoric, the usefulness of learning various skills, and the cultural significance of an area of study. His recommendation for redressing physical educations plight is to convince those using such criteria to assess worth in broader, and less dualistic ways. Hence the types of challenges presented in physical skill acquisition situations might be understood as important stimuli for developing human capacities that complement those capacities acquired from more conventional intellectual pursuits. While the idea of rethinking criteria that should be used for judging academic value may be laudable, how this might come about is difficult to conceive. An alternative and, yet, much simpler approach for improving the viability of physical education classes in higher education is to improve the quality of student outcomes. In essence, it may be that the inclusion of physical education in higher education is not contested on philosophical grounds, but on operational ones. As Duda (2001) conveys performance classes are elective, not required. Skill instructors are rarely hired as tenure track faculty. Credit toward graduation may not be given for such classes, and grading is often pass/fail. Passing marks are virtually assured with a good attendance record (p. 437). If such a profile is accurate, it is difficult to understand how student achievement can be significant or the entire enterprise viewed as essential to the general curriculum. Indeed, such a profile connotes that the physical education curriculum is soft, and that whether or not students acquire certain information and/or master specific skills is ambiguous. Considering physical educations past philosophical themes and its current trends of providing opportunities for students to: (a) recreate, (b) build and maintain health through exercise, (c) learn how to compete and cooperate, and (d) develop specific sport skills and levels of fitness, instructors often have difficulty in identifying and utilizing meaningful grading criteria. This has been attributed to both philosophical (Midgley, 2001) and managerial (Pringle, 2000) concerns. Indeed, as observed by Church (2001) many physical educators compute grades based on student behaviours which are unrelated to performance or knowledge objectives, such as dress, participation, and discipline. Interestingly, Ennis (2001) found that in colleges and universities virtually all grading in physical education is left to the discretion of the instructor, including selection of criteria and instruments to be used to assess student achievement. They also reported a trend toward less testing of all types. Consequently, it is not surprising that with so many ideas about what is to be accomplished, and so little control over how this should be done, it is difficult, if not impossible to determine the value of physical activity courses in the general curriculum. Indeed, it is one thing to provide sound philosophical arguments for why a particular discipline belongs in the curriculum, and quite another to operationalize the philosophy so that its essence is actualized. Recent studies suggest the importance of objective assessment not only as a device to promote the legitimacy of physical education in an academic setting, but as a tool to promote learning. For example, Pringle (2000) showed that student achievement in table tennis classes reflected the focus of evaluation. Students graded totally on physical skills performed most skilfully at the end of a class performed most skilfully, while those graded on attendance and participation had lower performance scores but the highest attendance rates. As well, Lee (2002), demonstrated how the proper use of evaluation and grading tools promotes on task behaviour and superior skill development in volleyball. Chen (2001), using a riflery task, also demonstrated that grading based on task competence was superior to grading based merely on participation when skill development was examined. Hidi (2000) further argues that the appropriate use of grading can promote positive attitudes towards a course, develop a students sense of confidence, and lead to substantial achievement. The reason why a rift exists between using grading as an integral part of the learning process, and using it only to fulfil administrative requirements seemingly is a complex problem that involves philosophical, technical, and practical issues (Duda, 2001). Yet, in a time when accountability is expected, and when cost cutting is widespread, empirical evidence for the integrity of a program is imperative. What and how we grade conveys a great deal about who we are, what we do, what we can accomplish, how we are viewed by others outside of our field, and whether physical education is considered as essential to the mission of education. Hence, the purpose of the present investigation was to acquire empirical descriptive data about grading of physical education in higher education. In light of our fields history of divergent philosophical views, ambitious, and often ambiguous goals, and its defensive position in higher education (Duda, 2001), an examination of what and how we grade would seemingly shed light on where we are as a discipline. Furthermore, such an investigation might help identify important issues that need to be addressed and resolved if we are to gain the degree of acceptance the field has so desperately sought over the years. Method Instrument To acquire information about college physical education programs a questionnaire was developed which, in addition to requesting information about an institutions profile (e. g. , public-private, size, approximate percentage of students enrolled in physical education, etc. , asked a series of questions about its physical education activity program. These included: (a) whether students received academic credit which counted in a students GPA, (b) the number and duration of class meetings, (c) how important various factors such as skill development, effort, and attendance were in computing a grade, (d) whether the department had a policy on grading, (e) the approximate percentage breakdown of grades awarded (e. g. , As, Bs, Cs, etc. ), and (f) whether the issue of grading had been considered by the department in the past five years. Prior to mailing the survey, questions were pilot tested on a group of five senior collegiate faculty members in a department of exercise and sport studies. These individuals each had taught undergraduate and graduate theory courses as well as a variety of undergraduate physical activity classes at a number of colleges and universities. They were quite knowledgeable about different types of service programs (e. g. , credit, required, no credit non-required) and how they typically operated. Furthermore, they were apprised of the questionnaires intent, and were asked to provide feedback on the clarity of questions as well as the instruments overall format. Based on feedback from this group, questions were reworded, added and deleted. In addition, the sequence of questions was revised for the purpose of providing a more coherent structure. The final version of the survey contained eight questions, some of which had subparts. As well, pilot testing demonstrated that a respondent could complete the questionnaire in approximately ten minutes. Coding of Data As surveys were returned data were coded into an Excel Spreadsheet by two trained assistants, and then analyzed using Exels statistical functions. It is noteworthy to report that during the data reduction process it became evident, as conveyed by a number of respondents, that quantitative data which were requested from a number of questions did not exist Consequently, many respondents either did not answer such items or acknowledged that they merely volunteered their own perceived best guess, or a numerical range within which they believed the actual value requested would occur. Hence, a decision was made to code and analyze all data acknowledging that, for the most part, they only reflect respondents best estimates, rather than hard numbers. Furthermore, where a range was given, the midpoint was used in further analyses. In passing, the observation that certain types of data were not acquired or readily available may in itself be an important finding since a departments viability may depend on such information. Items falling into this category included such things as: (a) the number of students taking physical education classes in a semester, (b) the typical grade distribution (e. g. , % As, % Bs, etc. ), (c) the factors utilized to compute course grades, and (d) whether an institutional limit existed for the number of physical education courses that could be taken by a student for academic credit. Results Sample Within a thirty day period of mailing surveys 556 (44%) responses were received. Table 1 shows a break down of respondents by institution type and size. Because of financial limitations, further attempts to obtain data from nonrespondents were not attempted. Of the 556 respondents, 78 (14%) indicated that they did not have, or no longer had a physical education activity program. This was somewhat of a surprising finding, especially so because many conveyed that their institutions program had been recently eliminated. Whether a trend toward program elimination actually existed is of significant import to our profession and deserves immediate attention. Schools which indicated that they did not offer physical education classes were removed from further analysis, leaving 478 institutions in the database. Is Academic Credit Given for Physical Education Activity Courses? An important question posed by this investigator was whether institutions grant academic credit which counts in a students GPA for taking physical education activity courses. Presumably, this would indicate whether classes were viewed as a meaningful part of the institutions general curriculum. It was found that 335 (72. %) of respondents reported that academic credit which is computed in a students GPA was awarded for physical education activity courses. Table 2 reveals that Public State Universities and Colleges were somewhat more likely to award academic credit than Private Universities and Colleges. Furthermore, while a few institutions had a unique formula for computing the amount of credit earned in a class, nearly all institutions granted one credit per course. A follow-up question probed how much of such credit may be counted in a students total academic program. Although there seemed to be a great deal of uncertainty regarding the answer to this question, many respondents indicated that their institution had not set a limit or did not have a policy (only 65% of respondents who count physical education credit in the GPA responded). Those that were clear on this issue indicated that a limit did exist, and that the median value across institutions and within school categories was four credits. A subsequent question probed what the course time commitment was for earning credit. Across institutional types classes typically met for the length of a semester (14-15weeks), and for two contact hours a week. How are Grades Computed? A number of questions regarding how grades were computed followed. An initial issue was whether or not the department had a policy on grading. The idea here was to get a sense of whether faculty members agreed on how such things as skill, knowledge, and class participation should be weighed in determining a students performance. In regard to this question, 80% of respondents indicated that their departments did not have a formal grading policy. Nonetheless, many individuals conveyed that students were administered tests of skill and knowledge, but that course instructors ultimately determined assessment tools, how various components were weighed, and the course grade computed. Because most departments did not have a formal grading policy, the next set of questions should be interpreted as only giving a general sense of how grades are computed from a respondents general perceptions. This question probed whether grades were competency based (i. e. students are assessed on the absolute level of performance attained), or norm based (i. e. , students are graded in relation to other students in the class). Results showed that most respondents (60. 6%) thought that grading at their institution was competency based, although a fair number reported that they thought their grading system was more norm based (23. 3%). The remaining 16. 1% either were unsure or did not respond to this item. Another question related to this issue was wh ether the amount learned was considered to be as important as the level of performance attained. Interestingly, 72% of respondents believed that instructors at their institutions weighed the amount learned as being equivalent to the proficiency attained, while 21% did not see these of equal importance. The remaining 7% were missing or undecided. In light of the previous data indicating a bias toward competency based grading, the response to this question is surprising since the amount learned would only be of importance if it correlated highly with proficiency attained. This may or may not be the case, but needs further investigation. Another way of probing the importance of factors employed in computing a grade was to ask respondents about how important they believed a subset of factors were in arriving at a grade. They rated the factors of (a) effort, (b) attendance, (c) attitude, (d) amount learned and (e) level of performance on a five-point scale anchored by the terms very important(5). Overall, attendance (1. 3) and amount learned (1. 4) had the lowest median values (i. e. , highest perceived weighting). The level of performance attained (1. ), and effort expended (1. 8) followed closely, while attitude (2. 3) appeared lowest in importance. It should be noted that all of these criteria tended to fall between the very important and uncertain end of the continuum. With the exception of performance attainment, it is not clear why the other factors identified were viewed as important in grading, if grading is competency based. For that matter, these criteria would also be somewhat problematic for a norm referenc ed standard which focuses on relative competency attainments. Respondents were also asked to estimate the percentage distribution of grades in physical education at their institution. Overall, as were perceived to be the most prevalent grade and were awarded to 51% of students. Bs were the next most prevalent grade awarded to 31% of students with Cs following at 14%. Ds and Fs were infrequently given with a combined percentage of 7%. Has the Issue of Grading been Considered in the Past Five Years? A final question asked whether the issue of grading had been considered by a department in the past five years. Although 51% had not discussed this issue, 47% had done so. The questionnaire requested respondents who answered this question in the affirmative to comment on what issues were discussed by their departments. Clearly, the topic of whether to change from a letter grade system to a pass-fail system was the most widely discussed issue. Related to this was the subject of grade inflation and the idea that moving to a pass-fail system may reduce pressure from various constituencies (e. g. , administrators, faculty, regents) to reduce the number of high grades awarded. There were also numerous comments about criteria to be used in grading, consistency in grading across sections of a course, and among different courses. Several respondents also commented on the conflict between trying to encourage lifelong participation m activities and the negative connotations of having to grade based on an individuals proficiency. From the nature and number of comments collated, it was evident that departments have grappled with this issue, but remain in a quandary about an ideal solution.

The minor prophets

The minor prophets The twelve books of the minor prophets is the name given to the last twelve books of the Old Testament. The twelve books of the minor prophets are in the Prophets section of the Hebrew Bible, which is divided into three sections, the Law, Prophets, and Writings. These books were all written at different times over a period of three hundred years, starting from the reign of Jeroboam II. All of these books, except for the Book of Jonah, record messages from God that were delivered to the people of Israel and Judah. The Book of Jonah was primarily biographical, and told his story, rather than hortatory. The name minor refers to their length, rather than their importance. The underlying theme of all of these Books is Israels relationship with God. There is a wide variety of views written in these books but the main questions that keep appearing throughout these prophecies are, What does God demand of humans, and how do historical events signify Gods word. The order of these books in the English Bible are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habukkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Hosea is the first book and was written during the rule of Jeroboam II. It is written to demonstrate Gods unfailing love for his people, even though they choose to follow their unfaithful Kings in their sinful ways. There were 6 other Kings after Jeroboam II that ruled, however, they were never mentioned by Hosea, probably because of their insignificance as well as their sinful practices. Amos prophesied around the same time as Hosea, and both served their ministry in Northern Israel when Jeroboam II ruled over Israel and Uzziah ruled over Judah. Amos was not a prophet by profession, but was a herdsman and vinedresser, who the Lord commissioned to travel to Northern Israel to warn them of impending judgment (Amos 7:15). Amoss famous prophesy was when he warned Israel of an earthquake at Hazor, which came true a couple of years later and authenticated Amoss message. The earthquake was viewed by the people, at that time, as an omen of judgment. Joels ministry is placed historically between Hosea and Amos. During Joels ministry, the Lord announced that he would punish the nations for the way in which they had scattered His people, divided up His land, and sold His children into slavery (Joel 3: 2-3). The Book of Joel has two major sections. In the first section, Joel urges the people to mourn over the devastating effects of the locust invasion (Joel 1: 2-20), and to repent (Joel 2: 12-17). The second section of Joel, he notes that the Lord does take pity on his people (Joel 2:18), the Lord promises to call off the locust invasion, restore the nations crops, and vindicates his people (Joel 2: 19-3: 21). Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah all prophesied around the same time, around the time of the destruction of Judah. They prophesied in the same period, however, they all prophesied on different issues. Obadiah is the shortest book in the Hebrew Scriptures, consisting of only one single chapter. His ministry was directed at the Edomites, who lived south of Israel and were a constant source of conflict for the Israelites. The Edomites took pleasure over the destruction of Israel by different foreign invaders, however, Obadiah prophesied that Jehovah (God) would rebuke the Edomites and destroy them, while promising Israel deliverance and peace (Obadiah 1: 1-21). Finally, Obadiah prophesied that God, or Christ ( is the Great Warrior) will come to judge all nations and restore the land of Edom back to Israel (Revelation 19: 11-19; 20: 7-10). Nahums prophecy is about the fall of Nineveh, which was eventually conquered by the Babylonians. Nahum calls the people of Nineveh (the Assyrians) to repent and that God is the ruler of all nations (Nahum 1: 1ff). Nahums ministry also involved notifying the Assyrians that God was going to punish them for their transgressions against Israel. Habakkuk: The Book of Habakkuk consists of conversations between God and himself. Habakkuk questions God on how His Holiness can allow the lawlessness and violence that was overtaking Judah, Habakkuk lament (Habb 1: 2-4): How long must the unjust triumph? The Lords response (Habb 1: 5-11): Justice is on the way. Habakkuks message to his people is that God will not allow evil to continue (Habb 2: 1-17). God promises his people that despite evil men prospering, God will exalt his people one day (Habb 3: 1-7). The Lords response (Habb 2: 2-20): Justice will indeed prevail in due time. Habakkuks response (3: 1-19): I have heardI will rejoice! Habakkuk basically questions Gods allowing evil to overtake Judah and after God responds to Habakkuk, he concludes that he can trust God to punish the people wisely and justly. Zephaniah was a contemporary of Habakkuk and Jeremiah. He prophesied during the reign of Josiah and preceded the fall of Nineveh. He prophesied in Judah, specifically in Jerusalem, during the time when the people of Judahs moral and spiritual life had been corrupted by the evil reign of Manasseh and Amon (Zephaniah 3: 1-7). The people have been drawn away from God and idolatry and corruption was the main theme in Jerusalem (Zephaniah 1: 7). Because of this, Zephaniahs prophecy came true when Judah was invaded and taken over by the Babylonians. The Book of Zephaniah is divided into three sections: retribution or judgment for sin, a call for repentance, and a promise of future redemption and blessing. Zephaniah prophesied that despite the impending exile God promised to Israel that he would judge the nation and rescue his people. He also tells of a day when God will purge creation of sin and redeem his people (Zephaniah 1: 18; 3: 8, 12-20). Gods promise of deliverance will extend past the burdens of Israel and include all those who are outcasts and lame. Paul clarifies these promises in the New Testament to show in Christ, both Jew and Gentile comprise the people of God (Eph 2: 11-3: 21). These promises, however, were not meant foe every Jew regardless of belief in Christ, but only for those Jews who trusted in Jesus (Rom 9: 1ff). Micahs ministry was primarily to Jerusalem and the rest of the Southern Kingdom. Micahs ministry criticizes the leaders of Judah for their corruption as well as their insensitivity to the poor. He was a contemporary of Isaiah and their messages were very similar. He prophesied the destruction of Samaria and Northern Israel, followed by similar destruction to Judah. Micah announces the coming of the Messiah, from Bethlehem (Micah 5: 1-5), and with the coming of this future King, will come a future Kingdom (Micah 4: 1-8). Jonah, unlike all of the other 11 books of the minor prophets, is the only one that is biographical. Jonah is called on by God to call on the Assyrians (specifically the people of Nineveh) to repent of their sin (Jonah 1: 2). The problem is that Jonah hated the Assyrians, who had caused his people (the people of Israel) many hardships. He felt that if his ministry was successful and the Assyrians repented, then God might forgive them and spare them from destruction. The main theme of the Book of Jonah is not about Jonah running away and hiding from God, even though this is an important lesson for everyone, it is that Gods purpose is to save people of all nations (Jonah 3: 1ff), not just the people of Israel. Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi is the last group of the Twelve Minor Prophets. They all prophesied after the Babylonian exile. Haggai was the first prophet to minister to the first people of Israel who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonians decided to release them from captivity. He inspired the Jews who returned back to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. During the first 15 years after their return to Jerusalem from Babylonia, the people had built fine houses for themselves, and only the foundations of the temple had been laid. However, after Haggais rebuke, construction of the temple restarted and within 4 years, the temple was finished. Zechariahs message was of hope and encouragement. Through Zechariah, God tells of a day when hw will bring the office of king and priest together as one, who will build the temple of the Lord (Zech 3: 8-10; 6: 11-15). This future individual is Jesus, who will make atonement for his people and rules as King on Davids throne (Acts 2: 1ff; 15: 1ff; Heb 2-9). Malachis message to the people of Israel was that if the people return to God, then God will bless them greatly. God announces (through Malachi) that he will send a messenger who will pave the way for the Messiah. Malachi 4: 5-6 refers to John the Baptist as that person (Mal 3: 1; 4: 5-6). Chisholm, Robert B. Jr. (2002). Handbook on The Prophets, p. 335-477. Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287: Baker Academic Retrieved from: http://theroadtoemmaus.wordpress.com/2007/08/17/the-message-of-the-minor-prophets/ 2/1/2010 Retrieved from: http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/Bible/Prophets/Latter_Prophets/The_12_Minor_Pr 2/1/2010 Retrieved from: http://bible.org/seriespage/minor-prophets 2/1/2010 Retrieved from: http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_otb5.htm 2/1/2010 Retrieved from: http://www.biblestudy.org/prophecy/minor-prophets.html 2/1/2010